Vintidgegram Industrial Revolution
See also:, and The Second Industrial Revolution, also known as the Technological Revolution, was a phase of rapid in the final third of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th. The, which ended in the early to mid 1800s, was punctuated by a slowdown in macroinventions before the Second Industrial Revolution in 1870. Though a number of its characteristic events can be traced to earlier innovations in, such as the establishment of a industry, the development of methods for manufacturing and the invention of the to produce, the Second Industrial Revolution is generally dated between 1870 and 1914 (the start of ). Advancements in manufacturing and production technology enabled the widespread adoption of preexisting technological systems such as and networks, gas and, and, which had earlier been concentrated to a few select cities. The enormous expansion of rail and telegraph lines after 1870 allowed unprecedented movement of people and ideas, which culminated in a new wave of. In the same time period, new technological systems were introduced, most significantly.
The Second Industrial Revolution continued into the 20th century with early factory and the, and ended at the start of. Contents. Overview The Second Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid industrial development, primarily in, and the, but also in, the,. It followed on from the that began in Britain in the late 18th century that then spread throughout Western Europe and later North America. It was characterized by the build out of, large-scale iron and production, widespread use of in manufacturing, greatly increased use of steam power, widespread use of the, use of and the beginning of. It also was the period during which modern organizational methods for operating large scale businesses over vast areas came into use.
The concept was introduced by, (1910), but ' use of the term in a 1966 essay and in (1972) standardized scholarly definitions of the term, which was most intensely promoted by (1918–2007). However, some continue to express reservations about its use. Landes (2003) stresses the importance of new technologies, especially, the and petroleum, new materials and substances, including alloys and, electricity and communication technologies (such as the, telephone and ). Vaclav Smil called the period 1867–1914 'The Age of ' during which most of the great innovations were developed since the inventions and innovations were engineering. Industry and technology A synergy between iron and steel, railroads and coal developed at the beginning of the Second Industrial Revolution. Railroads allowed cheap transportation of materials and products, which in turn led to cheap rails to build more roads.
Railroads also benefited from cheap coal for their steam locomotives. This synergy led to the laying of 75,000 miles of track in the U.S. In the 1880s, the largest amount anywhere in world history. Iron The technique, in which the hot from a blast furnace is used to combustion air blown into a, was invented and patented by in 1828 at in Scotland.
Hot blast was the single most important advance in fuel efficiency of the blast furnace as it greatly reduced the fuel consumption for making pig iron, and was one of the most important technologies developed during the. Falling costs for producing coincided with the emergence of the in the 1830s. The early technique of hot blast used iron for the regenerative heating medium. Iron caused problems with expansion and contraction, which stressed the iron and caused failure. Developed the Cowper stove in 1857.
This stove used firebrick as a storage medium, solving the expansion and cracking problem. The Cowper stove was also capable of producing high heat, which resulted in very high throughput of blast furnaces. The Cowper stove is still used in today's blast furnaces. With the greatly reduced cost of producing pig iron with using hot blast, demand grew dramatically and so did the size of blast furnaces. A diagram of the. Air blown through holes in the converter bottom creates a violent reaction in the molten pig iron that oxidizes the excess carbon, converting the pig iron to pure iron or steel, depending on the residual carbon.
The, invented by, allowed the of, increasing the scale and speed of production of this vital material, and decreasing the labor requirements. The key principle was the removal of excess carbon and other impurities from by with air blown through the molten iron. The oxidation also raises the temperature of the iron mass and keeps it molten. The 'acid' Bessemer process had a serious limitation in that it required relatively scarce ore which is low in phosphorus. Developed a more sophisticated process to eliminate the from. Collaborating with his cousin, a chemist at the, he patented his process in 1878; & Co.
In was the first company to use his patented process. His process was especially valuable on the continent of Europe, where the proportion of phosphoric iron was much greater than in England, and both in Belgium and in Germany the name of the inventor became more widely known than in his own country. In America, although non-phosphoric iron largely predominated, an immense interest was taken in the invention.
The operated 18 Bessemer converters and owned the largest steelworks in the world at the turn of the 20th century. The next great advance in steel making was the. Sir developed his regenerative furnace in the 1850s, for which he claimed in 1857 to able to recover enough heat to save 70–80% of the fuel. The furnace operated at a high temperature by using of fuel and air for. Through this method, an open-hearth furnace can reach temperatures high enough to melt steel, but Siemens did not initially use it in that manner. French engineer was the first to take out a license for the Siemens furnace and apply it to the production of steel in 1865. The Siemens-Martin process complemented rather than replaced the.
Its main advantages were that it did not expose the steel to excessive nitrogen (which would cause the steel to become brittle), it was easier to control, and that it permitted the melting and refining of large amounts of scrap steel, lowering steel production costs and recycling an otherwise troublesome waste material. It became the leading steel making process by the early 20th century. The availability of cheap steel allowed building larger bridges, railroads, and ships.
Other important steel products—also made using the open hearth process—were, steel rod and sheet steel which enabled large, high-pressure boilers and high-tensile strength steel for machinery which enabled much more powerful engines, gears and axles than were previously possible. With large amounts of steel it became possible to build much more powerful guns and carriages, tanks, and naval ships. A rail rolling mill in, 1887. The increase in steel production from the 1860s meant that could finally be made from steel at a competitive cost.
Being a much more durable material, steel steadily replaced iron as the standard for railway rail, and due to its greater strength, longer lengths of rails could now be rolled. Was soft and contained flaws caused by included. Iron rails could also not support heavy locomotives and was damaged. The first to make durable of steel rather than was at the, in 1857. The first of his steel rails was sent to. They were laid at part of the station approach where the iron rails had to be renewed at least every six months, and occasionally every three. Six years later, in 1863, the rail seemed as perfect as ever, although some 700 trains had passed over it daily.
This provided the basis for the accelerated construction of throughout the world in the late nineteenth century. Steel rails lasted over ten times longer than did iron, and with the falling cost of steel, heavier weight rails were used. This allowed the use of more powerful locomotives, which could pull longer trains, and longer rail cars, all of which greatly increased the productivity of railroads. Rail became the dominant form of transport infrastructure throughout the industrialized world, producing a steady decrease in the cost of shipping seen for the rest of the century. Electrification.
Patent#223898: Electric-Lamp. Issued January 27, 1880. In 1881, inventor of the first feasible, supplied about 1,200 Swan incandescent lamps to the in the City of Westminster, London, which was the first theatre, and the first public building in the world, to be lit entirely by electricity. Swan's lightbulb had already been used in 1879 to light Mosley Street, in, the first electrical street lighting installation in the world. This set the stage for the electrification of industry and the home.
The first large scale central distribution supply plant was opened at in London in 1882 and later at in. Rotating magnetic field of an. The three poles are each connected to a separate wire. Each wire carries current 120 degrees apart in phase. Arrows show the resulting magnetic force vectors. Three phase current is used in commerce and industry.
The first modern power station in the world was built by the English at. Built on an unprecedented scale and pioneering the use of high voltage (10,000V), it generated 800 kilowatts and supplied central London. On its completion in 1891 it supplied high-voltage that was then 'stepped down' with transformers for consumer use on each street. Allowed the final major developments in manufacturing methods of the Second Industrial Revolution, namely the. Was called 'the most important engineering achievement of the 20th century' by the. Electric lighting in factories greatly improved working conditions, eliminating the heat and pollution caused by gas lighting, and reducing the fire hazard to the extent that the cost of electricity for lighting was often offset by the reduction in fire insurance premiums.
Developed the first successful DC motor in 1886. By 1889 110 electric were either using his equipment or in planning. The electric street railway became a major infrastructure before 1920. The AC was developed in the 1890s and soon began to be used in the of industry. Household electrification did not become common until the 1920s, and then only in cities. Was commercially introduced at the.
Electrification also allowed the inexpensive production of, such as aluminium, chlorine, sodium hydroxide, and magnesium. Machine tools.
A graphic representation of formulas for the pitches of threads of screw bolts. The use of began with the onset of the. The increase in required more metal parts, which were usually made of or —and hand working lacked precision and was a slow and expensive process. One of the first machine tools was 's boring machine, that bored a precise hole in 's first steam engine in 1774.
Advances in the accuracy of machine tools can be traced to and refined. Standardization of screw threads began with around 1800, when the modern made V-thread machine screws a practical commodity.
In 1841, created a design that, through its adoption by many British railroad companies, became the world's first national machine tool standard called. During the 1840s through 1860s, this standard was often used in the United States and Canada as well, in addition to myriad intra- and inter-company standards. The importance of to mass production is shown by the fact that production of the used 32,000 machine tools, most of which were powered by electricity. Is quoted as saying that mass production would not have been possible without electricity because it allowed placement of machine tools and other equipment in the order of the work flow. Paper making. Main article: The first paper making machine was the, built by Sealy and, stationers in.
In 1800, working in London, investigated the idea of using wood to make paper, and began his printing business a year later. However, his enterprise was unsuccessful due to the prohibitive cost at the time. It was in the 1840s, that in and in both invented a successful machine which extracted the fibres from wood (as with rags) and from it, made paper. This started a new era for, and, together with the invention of the and the mass-produced of the same period, and in conjunction with the advent of the steam driven rotary, wood based paper caused a major transformation of the 19th century economy and society in industrialized countries. With the introduction of cheaper paper, schoolbooks, fiction, non-fiction, and newspapers became gradually available by 1900. Cheap wood based paper also allowed keeping personal diaries or writing letters and so, by 1850, the, or writer, ceased to be a high-status job. By the 1880s chemical processes for paper manufacture were in use, becoming dominant by 1900.
Petroleum The, both production and, began in 1848 with the first oil works in Scotland. The chemist set up a small business refining the crude oil in 1848. Young found that by slow distillation he could obtain a number of useful liquids from it, one of which he named 'paraffine oil' because at low temperatures it congealed into a substance resembling paraffin wax. In 1850 Young built the first truly commercial oil-works and oil refinery in the world at, using oil extracted from locally mined, shale, and bituminous coal to manufacture and lubricating oils; paraffin for fuel use and solid paraffin were not sold till 1856. Was developed in ancient China and was used for drilling brine wells. The salt domes also held natural gas, which some wells produced and which was used for evaporation of the brine. Chinese well drilling technology was introduced to Europe in 1828.
Although there were many efforts in the mid-19th century to drill for oil 's 1859 well near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is considered the first 'modern oil well'. Drake's well touched off a major boom in oil production in the. Drake learned of cable tool drilling from Chinese laborers in the U. The first primary product was kerosene for lamps and heaters. Similar developments around fed the European market. Kerosene lighting was much more efficient and less expensive than vegetable oils, tallow and whale oil.
Although town gas lighting was available in some cities, kerosene produced a brighter light until the invention of the. Both were replaced by electricity for street lighting following the 1890s and for households during the 1920s. Was an unwanted byproduct of oil refining until automobiles were mass-produced after 1914, and gasoline shortages appeared during World War I. The invention of the for doubled the yield of gasoline, which helped alleviate the shortages. Chemical.
The -chemical factories in, Germany, 1881 was discovered by English chemist in 1856. At the time, chemistry was still in a quite primitive state; it was still a difficult proposition to determine the arrangement of the elements in compounds and chemical industry was still in its infancy. Perkin's accidental discovery was that could be partly transformed into a crude mixture which when extracted with alcohol produced a substance with an intense purple colour. He scaled up production of the new ', and commercialized it as the world's first synthetic dye. After the discovery of mauveine, many new appeared (some discovered by Perkin himself), and factories producing them were constructed across Europe. Towards the end of the century, Perkin and other British companies found their research and development efforts increasingly eclipsed by the German chemical industry which became world dominant by 1914.
Maritime technology. The launch of, which was advanced for her time, 1843.
This era saw the birth of the modern ship as disparate technological advances came together. The was introduced in 1835 by who discovered a new way of building propellers by accident. Up to that time, propellers were literally screws, of considerable length.
But during the testing of a boat propelled by one, the screw snapped off, leaving a fragment shaped much like a modern boat propeller. The boat moved faster with the broken propeller.
The superiority of screw against paddles was taken up by navies. Trials with Smith's, the first steam driven screw, led to the famous tug-of-war competition in 1845 between the screw-driven and the paddle steamer; the former pulling the latter backward at 2.5 knots (4.6 km/h). The first seagoing iron steamboat was built by and named the. It also used an innovative oscillating engine for power. The boat was built at Tipton using temporary bolts, disassembled for transportation to London, and reassembled on the Thames in 1822, this time using permanent rivets. Other technological developments followed, including the invention of the, which allowed boilers to run on purified water rather than salt water, eliminating the need to stop to clean them on long sea journeys. The, built by engineer, was the longest ship in the world at 236 ft (72 m) with a 250-foot (76 m) and was the first to prove that transatlantic steamship services were viable.
The ship was constructed mainly from wood, but Brunel added bolts and iron diagonal reinforcements to maintain the keel's strength. In addition to its steam-powered, the ship carried four masts for sails. Brunel followed this up with the, launched in 1843 and considered the first modern ship built of metal rather than wood, powered by an engine rather than wind or oars, and driven by propeller rather than paddle wheel. Brunel's vision and engineering innovations made the building of large-scale, propeller-driven, all-metal steamships a practical reality, but the prevailing economic and industrial conditions meant that it would be several decades before transoceanic steamship travel emerged as a viable industry. Highly efficient began being used on ships, allowing them to carry less coal than freight. Was first built by and Joseph Maudslay in the 1820s as a type of direct-acting engine that was designed to achieve further reductions in engine size and weight. Oscillating engines had the piston rods connected directly to the crankshaft, dispensing with the need for connecting rods.
In order to achieve this aim, the engine cylinders were not immobile as in most engines, but secured in the middle by trunnions which allowed the cylinders themselves to pivot back and forth as the crankshaft rotated, hence the term oscillating. It was, engineer for the who perfected the oscillating engine. One of his earliest engines was the. In 1844 he replaced the engines of the yacht, with oscillating engines of double the power, without increasing either the weight or space occupied, an achievement which broke the naval supply dominance of. Penn also introduced the for driving screw propellers in vessels of war. (1846) and (1848) were the first ships to be fitted with such engines and such was their efficacy that by the time of Penn's death in 1878, the engines had been fitted in 230 ships and were the first mass-produced, high-pressure and high-revolution marine engines.
The revolution in naval design led to the first modern in the 1870s, evolved from the design of the 1860s. The were built for the British as the first class of ocean-going that did not carry, and the first whose entire main armament was mounted on top of the hull rather than inside it.
Rubber The of, by American and Englishman in the 1840s paved the way for a growing rubber industry, especially the manufacture of developed the first practical tyre in 1887 in South Belfast. Demonstrated the supremacy of Dunlop's newly invented pneumatic tyres in 1889, winning the tyre's first ever races in Ireland and then England. Dunlop's development of the pneumatic tyre arrived at a crucial time in the development of and commercial production began in late 1890. Bicycles The modern bicycle was designed by the English engineer in 1876, although it was who produced the first commercially successful safety bicycle a few years later. Its popularity soon grew, causing the of the 1890s. Road networks improved greatly in the period, using the method pioneered by Scottish engineer, and hard surfaced roads were built around the time of the bicycle craze of the 1890s. Modern was patented by British civil engineer in 1901.
Automobile German inventor patented the world's in 1886. It featured wire wheels (unlike carriages' wooden ones) with a four-stroke engine of his own design between the rear wheels, with a very advanced coil ignition and evaporative cooling rather than a radiator. Power was transmitted by means of two to the rear axle. It was the first entirely designed as such to generate its own power, not simply a motorized-stage coach or horse carriage. Benz began to sell the vehicle (advertising it as the Benz Patent Motorwagen) in the late summer of 1888, making it the first commercially available automobile in history. Built his first car in 1896 and worked as a pioneer in the industry, with others who would eventually form their own companies, until the founding of Ford Motor Company in 1903. Ford and others at the company struggled with ways to scale up production in keeping with Henry Ford's vision of a car designed and manufactured on a scale so as to be affordable by the average worker.
The solution that Ford Motor developed was a completely redesigned factory with and special purpose machines that were systematically positioned in the work sequence. All unnecessary human motions were eliminated by placing all work and tools within easy reach, and where practical on conveyors, forming the, the complete process being called. This was the first time in history when a large, complex product consisting of 5000 parts had been produced on a scale of hundreds of thousands per year. The savings from methods allowed the price of the to decline from $780 in 1910 to $360 in 1916. In 1924 2 million T-Fords were produced and retailed $290 each. Applied science opened many opportunities.
By the middle of the 19th century there was a scientific understanding of chemistry and a fundamental understanding of and by the last quarter of the century both of these sciences were near their present-day basic form. Thermodynamic principles were used in the development of. Understanding chemistry greatly aided the development of basic inorganic chemical manufacturing and the aniline dye industries.
The science of was advanced through the work of and others. Sorby pioneered the study of and under, which paved the way for a scientific understanding of metal and the mass-production of steel. In 1863 he used etching with acid to study the microscopic structure of metals and was the first to understand that a small but precise quantity of carbon gave steel its strength. This paved the way for and to develop the method for mass-producing steel. Other processes were developed for purifying various elements such as, and which could be used for making alloys with special properties, especially with steel., for example, is strong and fatigue resistant, and was used in half the automotive steel. Alloy steels were used for ball bearings which were used in large scale bicycle production in the 1880s. Ball and roller bearings also began being used in machinery.
Other important alloys are used in high temperatures, such as steam turbine blades, and stainless steels for corrosion resistance. The work of and laid the groundwork for modern industrial chemistry.
Liebig is considered the 'father of the fertilizer industry' for his discovery of as an essential plant nutrient and went on to establish which produced the. Hofmann headed a school of practical chemistry in London, under the style of the, introduced modern conventions for and taught Perkin who discovered the first synthetic dye. The science of was developed into its modern form by,. These scientific principles were applied to a variety of industrial concerns, including improving the efficiency of boilers. The work of and others was pivotal in laying the foundations of the modern scientific understanding of. Scottish scientist was particularly influential—his discoveries ushered in the era of.
His most prominent achievement was to formulate a that described, and as manifestations of the same, namely the. The unification of light and electrical phenomena led to the prediction of the existence of and was the basis for the future development of radio technology by, and others.
Maxwell himself developed the first durable in 1861 and published the first scientific treatment of. Control theory is the basis for, which is widely used in, particularly for, and for controlling ships and airplanes. Was developed to analyze the functioning of on steam engines. These governors came into use in the late 18th century on wind and water mills to correctly position the gap between mill stones, and were adapted to steam engines. Improved versions were used to stabilize automatic tracking mechanisms of telescopes and to control speed of ship propellers and rudders.
However, those governors were sluggish and oscillated about the. Wrote a paper mathematically analyzing the actions of governors, which marked the beginning of the formal development of control theory.
The science was continually improved and evolved into an engineering discipline. Fertilizer was the first to understand the importance of as, and promoted the importance of inorganic minerals to. In England, he attempted to implement his theories commercially through a fertilizer created by treating in bone meal with. Another pioneer was who began to experiment on the effects of various manures on plants growing in pots in 1837, leading to a manure formed by treating phosphates with sulphuric acid; this was to be the first product of the nascent artificial manure industry. The discovery of in commercial quantities in, led Fisons and to develop one of the first large-scale commercial fertilizer plants at, and in the 1850s.
By the 1870s produced in those factories, were being shipped around the world from the port at. The was developed by Norwegian industrialist and scientist along with his business partner in 1903, but was soon replaced by the much more efficient, developed by the -winning chemists of and in Germany.
The process utilized molecular nitrogen (N 2) and methane (CH 4) gas in an economically sustainable synthesis of (NH 3). The ammonia produced in the Haber process is the main raw material for production of. Engines and turbines The was developed by Sir in 1884.
His first model was connected to a that generated 7.5 kW (10 hp) of electricity. The invention of Parson's steam turbine made cheap and plentiful electricity possible and revolutionized.
By the time of Parson's death, his turbine had been adopted for all major world power stations. Unlike earlier steam engines, the turbine produced rotary power rather than reciprocating power which required a crank and heavy flywheel. The large number of stages of the turbine allowed for high efficiency and reduced size by 90%. The turbine's first application was in shipping followed by electric generation in 1903. The first widely used was the of 1876.
From the 1880s until electrification it was successful in small shops because small steam engines were inefficient and required too much operator attention. The Otto engine soon began being used to power automobiles, and remains as today's common gasoline engine. The was independently designed by and in the 1890s using thermodynamic principles with the specific intention of being highly efficient. It took several years to perfect and become popular, but found application in shipping before powering locomotives. It remains the world's most efficient prime mover.
Telecommunications. Major telegraph lines in 1891. The first commercial system was installed by Sir and in May 1837 between and in London. The rapid expansion of telegraph networks took place throughout the century, with the first being built by between.
The was formed in in 1856 to undertake to construct a commercial telegraph cable across the Atlantic Ocean. This was successfully completed on 18 July 1866 by the ship, captained by after many mishaps along the away. From the 1850s until 1911, British submarine cable systems dominated the world system. This was set out as a formal strategic goal, which became known as the. The was patented in 1876 by, and like the early telegraph, it was used mainly to speed business transactions.
As mentioned above, one of the most important scientific advancements in all of history was the unification of light, electricity and magnetism through. A scientific understanding of electricity was necessary for the development of efficient electric generators, motors and transformers. And both demonstrated and confirmed the phenomenon of electromagnetic waves that had been predicted by Maxwell.
It was Italian inventor who successfully commercialized radio at the turn of the century. He founded in in 1897 and in the same year transmitted across, sent the first ever wireless communication over open sea and made the first transatlantic transmission in 1901 from, to,. Marconi built high-powered stations on both sides of the Atlantic and began a commercial service to transmit nightly news summaries to subscribing ships in 1904. The key development of the by Sir in 1904 underpinned the development of modern electronics and radio broadcasting. 's subsequent invention of the allowed the amplification of electronic signals, which paved the way for radio broadcasting in the 1920s. Modern business management Railroads are credited with creating the modern by scholars such as Alfred Chandler.
Previously, the management of most businesses had consisted of individual owners or groups of partners, some of whom often had little daily hands-on operations involvement. Centralized expertise in the home office was not enough. A railroad required expertise available across the whole length of its trackage, to deal with daily crises, breakdowns and bad weather.
A collision in Massachusetts in 1841 led to a call for safety reform. This led to the reorganization of railroads into different departments with clear lines of management authority. When the telegraph became available, companies built telegraph lines along the railroads to keep track of trains.
Railroads involved complex operations and employed extremely large amounts of capital and ran a more complicated business compared to anything previous. Consequently, they needed better ways to track costs. For example, to calculate rates they needed to know the cost of a ton-mile of freight. They also needed to keep track of cars, which could go missing for months at a time. This led to what was called 'railroad accounting', which was later adopted by steel and other industries, and eventually became modern accounting. Later in the Second Industrial Revolution, and others in America developed the concept of.
Scientific management initially concentrated on reducing the steps taken in performing work (such as bricklaying or shoveling) by using analysis such as, but the concepts evolved into fields such as, and that helped to completely restructure the operations of factories, and later entire segments of the economy. Relative per capita levels of industrialization, 1750-1910. New products and services were introduced which greatly increased international trade. Improvements in design and the wide availability of cheap steel meant that slow, sailing ships were replaced with faster steamship, which could handle more trade with smaller crews. The industries also moved to the forefront. Britain invested less in technological research than the U.S.
And Germany, which caught up. The development of more intricate and efficient machines along with techniques (after 1910) greatly expanded output and lowered production costs. As a result, production often exceeded domestic demand. Among the new conditions, more markedly evident in Britain, the forerunner of Europe's industrial states, were the long-term effects of the severe of 1873–1896, which had followed fifteen years of great economic instability. Businesses in practically every industry suffered from lengthy periods of low — and falling — profit rates and price deflation after 1873. United States The U.S. Had its highest economic growth rate in the last two decades of the Second Industrial Revolution; however, population growth slowed while productivity growth peaked around the mid 20th century.
The in America was based on heavy industry such as factories, railroads. The iconic event was the opening of the in 1869, providing six-day service between the East Coast and San Francisco. During the Gilded Age, American railroad mileage tripled between 1860 and 1880, and tripled again by 1920, opening new areas to commercial farming, creating a truly national marketplace and inspiring a boom in coal mining and steel production. The voracious appetite for capital of the great trunk railroads facilitated the consolidation of the nation's financial market in. By 1900, the process of economic concentration had extended into most branches of industry—a few large corporations, some organized as 'trusts' (e.g. Standard Oil), dominated in steel, oil, sugar, meatpacking, and the manufacture of agriculture machinery.
Vintidgegram Industrial Revolution Movie
Other major components of this infrastructure were the new methods for manufacturing steel, especially the. The first billion-dollar corporation was, formed by financier in 1901, who purchased and consolidated steel firms built by and others. Increased mechanization of industry and improvements to worker efficiency, increased the productivity of factories while undercutting the need for skilled labor. Mechanical innovations such as batch and continuous processing began to become much more prominent in factories. This mechanization made some factories an assemblage of unskilled laborers performing simple and repetitive tasks under the direction of skilled foremen and engineers. In some cases, the advancement of such mechanization substituted for low-skilled workers altogether. Both the number of unskilled and skilled workers increased, as their wage rates grew Engineering colleges were established to feed the enormous demand for expertise.
Together with rapid growth of small business, a new middle class was rapidly growing, especially in northern cities. Employment distribution In the early 1900s there was a disparity between the levels of employment seen in the northern and southern United States. On average, states in the North had both a higher population, and a higher rate of employment than states in the South. The higher rate of employment is easily seen by considering the 1909 rates of employment compared to the populations of each state in the 1910 census. This difference was most notable in the states with the largest populations, such as New York and Pennsylvania.
Each of these states had roughly 5 percent more of the total US workforce than would be expected given their populations. Conversely, the states in the South with the best actual rates of employment, North Carolina and Georgia, had roughly 2 percent less of the workforce than one would expect from their population. When the averages of all southern states and all northern states are taken, the trend holds with the North over-performing by about 2 percent, and the South under-performing by about 1 percent. Germany The came to rival Britain as Europe's primary industrial nation during this period.
Since Germany industrialized later, it was able to model its factories after those of Britain, thus making more efficient use of its capital and avoiding legacy methods in its leap to the envelope of technology. Germany invested more heavily than the British in research, especially in chemistry, motors and electricity.
The German system (known as Konzerne), being significantly concentrated, was able to make more efficient use of capital. Germany was not weighted down with an expensive worldwide empire that needed defense. Following Germany's annexation of in 1871, it absorbed parts of what had been France's industrial base. By 1900 the German chemical industry dominated the world market for. The three major firms, and produced several hundred different dyes, along with the five smaller firms. In 1913 these eight firms produced almost 90 percent of the world supply of dyestuffs, and sold about 80 percent of their production abroad. The three major firms had also integrated upstream into the production of essential raw materials and they began to expand into other areas of chemistry such as,.
Top-level decision-making was in the hands of professional salaried managers, leading Chandler to call the German dye companies 'the world's first truly managerial industrial enterprises'. There were many spin offs from research—such as the pharmaceutical industry, which emerged from chemical research. Belgium during the showed the value of the for speeding the Second Industrial Revolution.
After 1830, when it and became a new nation, it decided to stimulate industry. It planned and funded a simple cruciform system that connected major cities, ports and mining areas, and linked to neighboring countries. Belgium thus became the railway center of the region. Was soundly built along British lines, so that profits were low but the infrastructure necessary for rapid industrial growth was put in place. Alternative uses There have been other times that have been called 'second industrial revolution'.
Industrial revolutions may be renumbered by taking earlier developments, such as the rise of in the 12th century, or of ancient Chinese technology during the, or of, as first. 'Second industrial revolution' has been used in the popular press and by technologists or industrialists to refer to the changes following the spread of new technology after. Excitement and debate over the dangers and benefits of the were more intense and lasting than those over the but both were predicted to lead to another industrial revolution. At the start of the the term 'second industrial revolution' has been used to describe the anticipated effects of hypothetical systems upon society. In this more recent scenario, they would render the majority of today's modern manufacturing processes obsolete, transforming all facets of the modern economy. See also. Muntone, Stephanie.
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The Industrial Revolution was a period of major that took place during the late 1700s and early 1800s. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and quickly spread throughout the world; the American Industrial Revolution, commonly referred to as the second Industrial Revolution, started sometime between 1820 and 1870. This time period saw the mechanization of agriculture and textile manufacturing and a revolution in power, including steam ships and railroads, that effected social, cultural. Although the Industrial Revolution occurred approximately 200 years ago, it is a period in time that left a profound impact on how people lived and the way businesses operated. Arguably, factory systems developed during the Industrial Revolution are responsible for the creation of and the modern cities of today. Production efficiency improved during the Industrial Revolution with inventions such as the steam engine, which dramatically reduced the time it took to manufacture products.
More efficient production subsequently reduced prices for products, primarily due to lower labor costs. Cheaper steel prices encouraged the development of such as railroads and bridges during the American Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution created an increase in employment opportunities.
As factories became more prolific, managers and employees were required to operate them; this had a flow-on effect of new and innovative products emerging. Increased innovation led to higher levels of motivation and education that resulted in several ground-breaking inventions that are still used today such as the telephone, X-ray, light bulb, calculator and anesthesia. The Industrial Revolution improved people’s lives. Due to Industrial Revolution advancements, there were improvements in nutrition, health care and education. Several major pitfalls developed as the Industrial Revolution progressed.
There was a reduction in agriculture as people were abandoning their farms to work in city factories where they could earn a higher income. This led to a shortage a food produced on farms. Increased pollution was a pitfall of the Industrial Revolution. Before the sharp increase in factory numbers, there was a limited amount of pollution generated in the world as production was predominantly manual. The Industrial Revolution provided an incentive to increase profits, and as a result, working conditions in factories deteriorated.
Long hours, inadequate remuneration and minimal breaks became the norm. This subsequently led to health issues for many factory workers. Labor movements in the United States developed momentum from the late 19th century in response to poor working conditions that developed during the Industrial Revolution.